Glossary

A form of job security granted to senior professors who are distinguished as experts in their field. Tenure makes it difficult to fire a professor and is meant to protect their ability to study and write about controversial topics.

Part-time instructors or lecturers at a college or university who do not have long-term contracts with the university, but are typically paid for each class they teach. (Also known as adjuncts.)

Organizations that engage in public communications and/or lobbying to influence the views and decisions of particular audiences, including policymakers and the general public. (Also known as interest groups or pressure groups.)

Data based on people’s personal experiences that has not been collected systematically.

A type of research that applies scientific knowledge to a practical problem.

A socially defined source of knowledge that might shape our beliefs about what is true and what is not true.

Research for its own sake. (Also known as pure science.)

Large datasets that require sophisticated data-processing techniques to be analyzed.

One member of the sample that the researcher has gathered data on, such as one of the interviewees or organizations being studied.

The use of sociological knowledge to improve people’s quality of life.

The practice of moving between different linguistic or cultural styles.

A type of research that involves people in the communities being studied as active participants in the research process, rather than passive “subjects” or sources of information.

Facts, details, statistics, and other information used to understand some phenomenon of interest. Ideally, data is collected through a scientific process, but any information could be considered data for research purposes.

Using scientific methods to interpret available information, identify trends and patterns, and map complex relationships.

A specific statistic or other piece of information employed in research.

An interdisciplinary field that uses computer coding and social scientific analysis methods to address the data-related problems facing corporations, governments, and other organizations.

All the data relating to a specific survey or study that is grouped together in a single file or set of files (known more colloquially as a database).

A sociological field that focuses on the statistical study of populations.

An original research project that a PhD student typically must complete in order to receive their doctoral degree.

Data collected through a scientific process.

Philosophical inquiry relating to the nature and scope of knowledge.

A researcher’s direct observation of social spaces as a method of gathering qualitative data.

Studying a phenomenon within its social context by conducting direct observation and providing detailed and accurate description.

A type of research that aims to assess whether social programs are effective in achieving their objectives.

Information collected under experimental conditions, where researchers can control the conditions under study.

Interviews conducted with a group of respondents at the same time. One or more moderators will typically ask the group questions about a particular political issue, product, or other topic.

Private organizations that manage large amounts of assets on behalf of a particular public purpose.

A type of research that attempts to make better use of scientific knowledge in “real world” settings, paying close attention to the roles that various groups (governments, nonprofit organizations, health care providers, citizens) play in the successful implementation of that knowledge.

Researchers without any affiliations to a university, think tank, or other institution.

When we make observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of what we observed.

Organizations that involve two or more nations working to further a common interest or goal.

A consistently observed pattern relating to a specific phenomenon.

The existing scientific studies that relate to a particular phenomenon.

Research to help guide companies make decisions about increasing their sales or improving their performance.

Scientific fields that focus on naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as light, objects, matter, earth, stars, or the human body (also known as the “hard sciences”).

Systematic efforts to determine what assistance may be needed by the individual clients or communities that a program serves.

Nonprofit organizations that operate outside of government control and that typically conduct operations on behalf of social or political causes across multiple countries. (Abbreviated as NGOs.)

Typically, organizations like charities, churches, labor unions, and political organizations that are not government-owned and operate within the private sector, yet—unlike for-profit firm—commit any profits they make to the organization’s social purpose.

A firsthand experience of some phenomenon.

Information that scientists gather in the real world from surveys, in-depth interviews, ethnographic observation, and other methods that don’t use an experimental design.

Philosophical inquiry into the nature of reality.

An analysis conducted to determine if a program has achieved its intended outcomes by measuring the various resources the program took advantage of (inputs) and its tangible results (outputs).

Assuming that broad patterns exist based on very limited observations.

A type of research that seeks to improve the conditions of a particular community by not just measuring and explaining a social problem facing the community, but identifying and implementing specific solutions to that problem. (Also called action research.)

Critical scrutiny by other scientists of a study's strengths and weaknesses.

Things, events, and processes that can be observed and that raise interesting questions for scientists about how the world works.

Reports written by experts that summarize a particular issue and the recommended policy approaches for dealing with it.

Action by policymakers to launch or expand particular programs or enact or alter particular laws.

Top government, corporate, or other officials who can create laws, regulations, rules, and other sorts of policies that affect people’s behavior.

The portion of an economy (including the labor market) that is not controlled by the government—for instance, the activities of for-profit firms and nonprofit organizations.

Membership organizations that represent individuals who share employment or interests in a specific industry or field, such as an academic discipline like sociology.

A set of interventions that individuals or groups receive, often as part of an organization or government's strategy to deal with a social problem.

An interdisciplinary science focused on studying the determinants of health—including social determinants—and using that knowledge to craft policies and interventions that prevent disease and promote health within communities and societies.

The portion of an economy (including the labor market) that is controlled by the government.

The application of sociological theories and research to matters of public interest.

Types of research that generate or analyze data involving words, pictures, and other symbols beyond numbers. Two of the most common qualitative methods in sociology include direct observation and in-depth interviews.

Types of research that generate or analyze data that can be represented by and condensed into numbers. Survey research is probably the most common quantitative method in sociology, but methods such as content analysis can also be conducted in a way that yields quantitative data.

Large research universities that engage in “very high research activity,” according to the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education, which means that they have substantial PhD programs and numerous faculty and students focused primarily on research.

Organized, logical ways of learning about and knowing the world around us.

The subset of the larger population that the researcher has collected data from.

A discipline of learning that uses formal, systematic procedures to observe and measure phenomena.

A systematic and organized body of knowledge that is acquired using the scientific method.

A standardized set of techniques for acquiring and vetting knowledge, such as procedures for making observations or interpreting results.

When we see only those patterns that we want to see, or when we assume that only the patterns we have directly experienced actually exist.

The social and environmental conditions and patterns of social interactions that influence the well-being of individuals.

A method for examining the ties linking individuals, groups, or other units and the dynamics and consequences of these structures. (Abbreviated as SNA.)

A type of public (government) policy that has to do with human well-being, such as health care policy, education policy, and labor regulations.

Scientific fields that focus on studying people or collections of people (such as groups, firms, societies, or economies) and their individual or collective behaviors.

The study of social life and social groups. Sociologists study how individuals shape (and are shaped by) social groups, which may be as small as individual families or couples, or as large as whole nations.

The various individuals or groups with a “stake” in the outcome of an endeavor. For a research project, the stakeholders would include the individuals or communities being studied, as well as scholars and policymakers who work on similar issues.

The specific population that the researcher wants to know more about (also known as a "population of interest").

A systematic explanation of a phenomenon.

A detailed description of the unfolding of a directly observed scene with particular attention to the subjective and cultural meanings of any behaviors and the larger social context.

Private or government-run organizations that conduct research to help governments, corporations, social movements, or other groups make decisions about the best policies to pursue or reforms to make.

Beliefs and customs that people justify based on the fact that they have been followed for a long time.

A type of research that seeks to better understand the perspective of the “end user,” the person who will ultimately use the company’s product or service. (Also known as UX or design research.)

A report that presents an organization’s take on an issue, often meant to spark discussion and debate among policymakers, the public, or other audiences.